P.E.R.F.U.M.E - The Smell From Heaven

Alright, let's take a look what is actually perfume is,

Perfume is a mixture of fragrant essential oils and aroma compounds, fixatives, and solvents used to give the human body, animals, objects, and living spaces a "pleasant" smell.

The word perfume used today derives from the Latin "per fumum", meaning through smoke. Perfumery, or the art of making perfumes, began in ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt and was further refined by the Romans and Persians. Although perfume and perfumery also existed in India, much of its fragrances are incense based. The earliest distillation of Attar was mentioned in the Hindu Ayurvedic text Charaka Samhita. The Harshacharita, written in 7th century A.D. in Northern India mentions use of fragrant agarwood oil. The world's first recorded chemist is considered to be a woman named Tapputi, a perfume maker who was mentioned in a cuneiform tablet from the second millennium BC in Mesopotamia.

She distilled flowers, oil, and calamus with other aromatics then filtered and put them back in the still several times.

Perfume types reflect the concentration of aromatic compounds in a solvent, which in fine fragrance is typicallyethanol or a mix of water and ethanol. Various sources differ considerably in the definitions of perfume types.

The concentration by percent/volume of perfume oil is as follows: Perfume extract (Extrait):

a) 15-40% (IFRA: typical 20%) aromatic compounds

b) Eau de Parfum (EdP), Parfum de Toilette (PdT): 10-20% (typical ~15%) aromatic compounds. Sometimes listed as "eau de perfume" or "millésime"

c) Eau de Toilette (EdT): 5-15% (typical ~10%) aromatic compounds

d) Eau de Cologne (EdC): Chypre citrus type perfumes with 3-8% (typical ~5%) aromatic compounds

e) Splash and After shave: 1-3% aromatic compounds

The precise formulae of commercial perfumes are kept secret. Even if they were widely published, they would be dominated by such complex ingredients and odorants that they would be of little use in providing a guide to the general consumer in description of the experience of a scent. Nonetheless, connoisseurs of perfume can become extremely skillful at identifying components and origins of scents in the same manner as wine experts.


The traditional classification which emerged around 1900 comprised the following categories:


- Single Floral: Fragrances that are dominated by a scent from one particular flower; in French called a soliflore. (e.g. Serge Lutens' Sa Majeste La Rose, which is dominated by rose.)

- Floral Bouquet: Containing the combination of several flowers in a scent.

- Amber: A large fragrance class featuring the sweet slightly animalic scents of ambergris or labdanum, often combined with vanilla, flowers and woods. Can be enhanced by camphorous oils and incense resins, which bring to mind Victorian era imagery of the Middle East and Far East.

- Wood: Fragrances that are dominated by woody scents, typically of agarwood, sandalwood and cedar. Patchouli, with its camphoraceous smell, is commonly found in these perfumes.Leather: A family of fragrances which features the scents of honey, tobacco, wood and wood tars in its middle or base notes and a scent that alludes to leather.

- Chypre: Meaning Cyprus in French, this includes fragrances built on a similar accord consisting of bergamot, oakmoss, patchouli, and labdanum. This family of fragrances is named after a perfume by François Coty. A notable example is Mitsouko (a popular name for girls in Japanese) by Guerlain.

- Fougère: Meaning Fern in French, built on a base of lavender, coumarin and oakmoss. Houbigant's Fougère Royale pioneered the use of this base. Many men's fragrances belong to this family of fragrances, which is characterized by its sharp herbaceous and woody scent.

Natural and synthetics are used for their different odor characteristics in perfumery:

	Naturals	Synthetics
Variance	Vary by the times and locations where they are harvested. It's much more difficult to produce consistent products with equivalent odor over years of harvest. As such, the perfumer has to "manually" balance-out the natural variations of the ingredients in order to maintain the quality of the perfume.	Much more consistent than natural aromatics. However, differences in organic synthesis may result in minute differences in concentration of impurities. If these impurities have low smell (detection) thresholds, the differences in the scent of the synthetic aromatic will be significant.
Components	Thousands of chemical compounds.	Depending on purity, consists primarily of one chemical compound.
Scent Uniqueness	Bears a somewhat similar scent to its originating material, depending on the extraction method.	Similar to natural scents if the compounds are the same. Novel scent compounds not mimicking natural compounds however, bear little scent likeness to natural materials.
Scent Complexity	Deep and complex fragrance notes. Softer with subtle scent nuances.	Pure and pronounced fragrance notes. Structural and defined.
Price	Perfume composed of largely natural materials are usually much more expensive.	Perfumes using largely synthetic aromatics can be available at widely-affordable prices. However, synthetic aromatics and perfumes are not necessarily cheaper than naturals. Some synthetics can be more costly than most natural ingredients due to various factors such as the complexity of systhesis or extraction procedure.

Fragrance compounds in perfumes will degrade or break down if improperly stored in the presence of:
- Heat
- Light
- Oxygen
- Extraneous organic materials

The Greatest Perfume over The Century:

390	Fiori di Capri	Carthusia
1709	Farina Eau de Cologne	Johann Maria Farina	Johann Maria Farina (1685-1766)
1714	Kölnisch Wasser	Farina gegenüber	Johann Maria Farina
1780	Royal English Leather	Creed
1789	Number Six	Caswell-Massey
1792	4711 Echt Kölnisch Wasser	4711	Wilhelm Muhlens
1798	Eau de Lubin	Parfum Lubin	Pierre François Lubin
1799	Gold Medal	Atkinsons
1806	Jean Marie Farina	Roger & Gallet
1815	Freshman	Truefitt & Hill	Francis Truefitt
1821	Lavender	Floris
1828	Pot Pourri	Santa Maria Novella
1853	Eau de Cologne Imperial	Guerlain	Pierre-François-Pascal Guerlain
1862	Fantasia de Fleurs	Creed
1872	Hammam Bouquet	Penhaligon's	William Henry Penhaligon
1889	Jicky	Guerlain	Aimé Guerlain
c. 1900	Bouquet Nouveau	Roger & Gallet
1901	Edwardian Bouquet	Floris
1902	Blenheim Bouquet	Penhaligon's	William Henry Penhaligon
1904	Mouchoir de Monsieur	Guerlain	Jacques Guerlain
1908	Florida Water	Murray & Lanman
c.1910	Astris	L.T. Piver	L.T. Piver
c.1912	Chypre	D'Orsay
1911	English Fern	Penhaligon's	William Henry Penhaligon
c. 1911	Illusion	Drake
c.1911	Narcise Noir	Parfums Caron
1912	L'Heure Bleue	Guerlain	Jacques Guerlain
1912	Quelques Fleurs L'Original	Houbigant
1913	April Violets	Yardley
c. 1913	La Feuilleraie	Gueldy
c.1913	Muguet	Coty
1913	Violette Précieuse	Parfums Caron	Ernest Daltroff
1916	Acqua di Parma Colonia	Acqua di Parma
1917	Chypre de Coty	François Coty	François Coty
1919	Mitsouko	Guerlain	Jacques Guerlain
1919	Tabac Blond	Caron	Ernest Daltroff
1921	N°5	Chanel	Ernest Beaux
1922	June Roses	Morny
1922	No. 22	Chanel	Ernest Beaux
1922	Nuit de Noël	Caron	Ernest Daltroff
1924	Cuir de Russie	Chanel	Ernest Beaux
c.1925	Mon Studio	Calliste
c.1925	My Sin	Lanvin
1925	Shalimar	Guerlain	Jacques Guerlain
1926	Bois des Îles	Chanel	Ernest Beaux
1926	Paris	Coty
1927	Arpège	Lanvin	André Fraysse
1927	Bellodgia	Caron	Ernest Daltroff
1927	L'Aimant	Coty	Francois Coty, Vincent Roubert
1928	Soir de Paris	Bourjois	Ernest Beaux
1929	Liu	Guerlain	Jacques Guerlain
1930	Acqua di Parma Profumo	Acqua di Parma
1930	Joy	Jean Patou	Henri Alméras
1932	Je Reviens	House of Worth	Maurice Blanchet
1932	Tabu	Dana	Jean Carles
1933	Vol de Nuit	Guerlain	Jacques Guerlain
1933	Angélique Encens	Creed
1934	Blue Grass	Elizabeth Arden	Fragonard
1934	Dunhill for Men	Alfred Dunhill
1934	Pour Un Homme	Caron	Ernest Daltroff
1935	Nuit de Longchamp	Parfum Lubin
1936	French Cancan	Caron	Ernest Daltroff
c.1936	Kobako	Bourjois
1937	Colony	Patou
1938	Dancing Time	Durbarry
1939	It's You	Arden
1940	Snuff	Schiaparelli
1943	Arôme 3	D'Orsay
1944	Bandit	Robert Piguet	Germaine Cellier
1944	Femme	Rochas	Edmond Roudnitska
1945	White Shoulders	Elizabeth Arden
1946	Coeur-Joie	Nina Ricci	Germaine Cellier
1946	Ma Griffe	Carven	Jean Carles
1947	Vent Vert	Balmain	Germaine Cellier
1948	Fracas	Robert Piguet	Germaine Cellier
1948	L'Air du Temps	Nina Ricci	Françis Fabron
1949	Rose	Caron	Michel Morsetti
1949	English Leather	Dana
1950	Orange Spice	Creed
1951	Eau d'Hermès	Hermès	Edmond Roudnitska
1951	Prince Douka	Marquay
1952	Wind Song	Prince Matchabelli	Georges V. Matchabelli
1952	Quadrille	Balenciaga
1953	Youth Dew[1][2]	Estée Lauder	Estée Lauder
1954	Electrique	Max Factor
1954	Poivre	Caron	Michel Morsetti
1955	Chanel Pour Monsieur	Chanel	Henri Robert
1955	Pine Sylvestre	Silvestre	Lino Vidal
1956	Diorissimo	Christian Dior	Edmond Roudnitska
1957	Le De	Givenchy
1957	L'Interdit (original)	Givenchy	Francis Fabron
1959	Monsieur de Givenchy	Givenchy	Michel Hy
1959	Cabochard	Parfums Grès	Bernard Chant
1960	Unforgettable	Avon
1961	Eau d'Hadrien	Annick Goutal	Annick Goutal
1961	Vetiver	Guerlain	Jean-Paul Guerlain
1962	Bal a Versailles	Jean Desprez	Jean Desprez
1963	Diorling	Christian Dior	Paul Vacher
1964	Idole de Lubin	Parfum Lubin
1965	Aramis	Aramis
1966	Eau Sauvage	Christian Dior	Edmond Roudnitska
1967	Climat	Lancôme
1968	Irisia	Creed
1969	Ô	Lancôme	Robert Gonnon
1969	Chamade	Guerlain	Jean-Paul Guerlain
1970	Equipage	Hermès	Guy Robert
1970	Sélection Verte	Creed
1971	No. 19	Chanel	Henri Robert
1972	Diorella	Christian Dior	Edmond Roudnitska
1972	Fleurissimo	Creed
1973	Charlie	Revlon	Harry A. Cuttler
1973	Ciara	Revlon
1974	Baby Soft	Love's
1974	Cristalle	Chanel	Henri Robert
1974	Eau de Guerlain	Guerlain	Jean-Paul Guerlain
1975	Zeste Mandarine Pamplemousse	Creed
1976	Lily of the Valley	Penhaligon's
1976	Violetta	Penhaligon's
1976	Z-14	Halston	Vincent Marsello
1977	Opium	Yves Saint Laurent	Jean-Louis Sieuzac
1978	Anaïs Anaïs	Cacharel	Raymond Chaillan/Roger Pellegrino
1978	Azzaro Pour Homme	Azzaro	Gérard Anthony, Martin Heiddenreich, Richard Wirtz
1978	Bluebell	Penhaligon's	Michael Pickthall
1978	Cinnabar	Estée Lauder
1978	Magie Noire	Lancôme	G. Goupy / J-C Niel
1978	White Linen	Estée Lauder	Sophia Grojsman
1979	Nahéma	Guerlain	Jean-Paul Guerlain
1980	Ivoire	Balmain	Francis Camail
1980	Patou Pour Homme	Jean Patou	Jean Kerleo
1981	Kouros	Yves Saint Laurent	Pierre Bourdon
1981	Must de Cartier	Cartier	Jean-Jacques Diener
1981	Nombre Noir	Shiseido	Jean-Yves Leroy
1981	Giorgio	Giorgio Beverly Hills	Group Work: M.L. Quince, Francis Camail, Harry Cuttler
1982	Drakkar Noir	Guy Laroche	Pierre Wargnye
1982	Trussardi	Trussardi
1982	Quorum	Antonio Puig
1983	Paris	Yves Saint Laurent	Sophia Grojsman
1984	Coco	Chanel	Jacques Polge
1985	Obsession	Calvin Klein	Jean Guichard
1985	Poison	Christian Dior	Jean Guichard
1985	Green Irish Tweed	Creed	Oliver Creed
1986	Prescriptives Calyx	Prescriptives	Sophia Grojsman
1987	Lou Lou	Cacharel	Jean Guichard
1988	Cool Water	Davidoff	Pierre Bourdon
1988	Eternity	Calvin Klein	Sophia Grojsman
1988	Fahrenheit	Christian Dior	Jean-Louis Sieuzac, Maurice Roger
1989	Red Door	Elizabeth Arden	Carlos Benaim, Olivier Gillotin
1989	Samsara	Guerlain	Jean-Paul Guerlain
1990	Trésor	Lancôme	Sophia Grojsman
1991	Gendarme	Gendarme
1992	Angel	Thierry Mugler	Olvier Cresp
1992	Bois de Violette	Serge Lutens	Christopher Sheldrake
1992	L'eau d'Issey	Issey Miyake	Jacques Cavallier
1992	Feminitè du Bois	Shiseido	Christopher Sheldrake
1993	Jean-Paul Gaultier Classique	Jean-Paul Gaultier	Jacques Cavallier
1994	CK One	Calvin Klein	Harry Fremont and Alberto Morillas
1995	24, Faubourg	Hermès	Maurice Roucel
1995	Hugo	Hugo Boss	Francis Kurkdjian/Creations Aromatiques
1995	Le Mâle	Jean-Paul Gaultier	Francis Kurkdjian
1995	Millésime Impérial	Creed
1996	Acqua di Gió Pour Homme	Giorgio Armani	Alberto Morillas and Jacques Cavallier
1996	Angel Men/A*Men	Thierry Mugler
1996	Dolce Vita	Christian Dior	Pierre Bourdon and Maurice Roger
1996	Spring Flower	Creed	Olivier Creed
1996	Tommy Girl	Tommy Hilfiger
1996	Organza	Givenchy	Sophie Labbé
1997	Envy	Gucci	Maurice Roucel
1997	Lolita Lempicka	Lolita Lempicka	Annick Menardo
1998	Hypnotic Poison	Christian Dior	Annick Menardo
1998	Bulgari Black	Bulgari	Annick Menardo
1998	Noa	Cacharel	Olivier Cresp
1999	Dzing!	L'Artisan	Olivia Giacobetti
1999	J’Adore	Christian Dior	Calice Becker
2000	En Passant	Frederic Malle	Olivia Giacobetti
2000	Tea for Two	L'Artisan	Olivia Giacobetti
2001	1872	Clive Christian
2001	Chergui	Serge Lutens	Christopher Sheldrake
2001	Coco Mademoiselle	Chanel	Jacques Polge
2001	Light Blue	Dolce & Gabbana	Olivier Cresp
2001	Mugler Cologne	Thierry Mugler	Alberto Morillas
2001	No. 1	Clive Christian
2001	Nu	Yves Saint Laurent	Jacques Cavallier
2001	X	Clive Christian
2002	Addict	Christian Dior	Thierry Wasser
2002	Black Cashmere	Donna Karan
2002	2	Comme des Garçons
2002	Chance	Chanel	Jacques Polge
2002	M7	Yves Saint Laurent	Alberto Morillas, Jacques Cavallier
2003	100% Love	Shaping Room	Sophia Grojsman
2003	Amor Amor	Cacharel	Laurent Bruyere, Dominque Ropion
2003	Beyond Paradise	Estée Lauder
2003	Brit	Burberry
2003	Narciso Rodriguez For Her	Narciso Rodriguez	Francis Kurkdjian & Christine Nagel
2004	Eau des Merveilles	Hermès	Ralf Schwieger / Nathalie Feisthauer
2004	Flowerbomb	Viktor & Rolf	Olivier Polge / Carlos Benaim / Domitille Bertier
2004	Pure Poison	Christian Dior
2005	Alien	Theirry Mugler	Dominique Ropion / Laurent Bruyere
2005	Chinatown	Bond No. 9	Aurelien Guichard
2005	Euphoria	Calvin Klein
2005	Un Jardin sur le Nil	Hermès	Jean-Claude Ellena
2006	Black Orchid	Tom Ford
2006	Terre d'Hermès	Hermès	Jean-Claude Ellena
2006	Rose 31	Le Labo	Daphne Bugey
2006	Lily & Spice	Penhaligon's
2006	Insolence	Guerlain	Maurice Roucel
2006	L'Homme	Yves Saint Laurent
2007	Fleur du Mâle	Jean-Paul Gaultier	Francis Kurkdjian
2007	Prada Infusion d'Iris	Prada
2007	Gucci by Gucci	Gucci
2007	Black	Roberto Cavalli
2008	8 88	Comme des Garçons
2008	Gucci by Gucci - Pour Homme	Gucci
2008	Diamonds	Emporio Armani
2009	It's Me!	CnRCreate

p/s: well, i loves collecting perfume. My favorite is Dunhill and Dolce&Gabbana.

Broadway Theatre ~ Where an Actor and Theatre Born

Broadway theater, commonly called simply Broadway, refers to theatrical performances presented in one of the 39 large professional theaters with 500 seats or more located in the Theatre District, New York (plus one theatre in Lincoln Center) in Manhattan, New York City. Along with London's West End theatre, Broadway theatre is usually considered to represent the highest level of commercial theatre in the English-speaking world.

The Broadway theatre district is a popular tourist attraction in New York City. According to The Broadway League, Broadway shows sold approximately $937 million worth of tickets in the 2007-08 season.

18th and 19th Centuries

Early theatre in New York

New York (and therefore, America) did not have a significant theatre presence until about 1750, when actor-managers Walter Murray andThomas Kean established a resident theater company at the Theatre on Nassau Street, which held about 280 people. They presented Shakespeare plays and ballad operas such as The Beggar’s Opera. In 1752, William Hallam sent a company of twelve actors from Britain to the colonies with his brother Lewis as their manager. They established a theater in Williamsburg, Virginia and opened with The Merchant of Venice and The Anatomist.

The company moved to New York in the summer of 1753, performing ballad operas and ballad-farces likeDamon and Phillida. The Revolutionary War suspended theatre in New York, but thereafter theatre resumed, and in 1798, the 2,000-seatPark Theatre was built on Chatham Street (now called Park Row). The Bowery Theater opened in 1826, followed by others. Blackface minstrel shows, a distinctly American form of entertainment, became popular in the 1830s, and especially so with the arrival of the Virginia Minstrels in the 1840s.

Birth of the musical and post-Civil War

Theater in New York moved from downtown gradually to midtown beginning around 1850, seeking less expensive real estate prices. In 1870, the heart of Broadway was in Union Square, and by the end of the century, many theaters were near Madison Square. Theaters did not arrive in the Times Squarearea until the early 1900s, and the Broadway theaters did not consolidate there until a large number of theaters were built around the square in the 1920s and 1930s. Broadway's first "long-run" musical was a 50 performance hit called The Elves in 1857. New York runs continued to lag far behind those in London, but Laura Keene's "musical burletta" Seven Sisters (1860) shattered previous New York records with a run of 253 performances. It was at a performance by Keene's troupe of Our American Cousin in Washington, D.C. that Abraham Lincoln was shot.

The first theater piece that conforms to the modern conception of a musical, adding dance and original music that helped to tell the story, is considered to be The Black Crook, which premiered

in New York on September 12, 1866. 

1890s and later

Charles Hoyt's A Trip to Chinatown (1891) became Broadway's long-run champion, holding the stage for 657 performances. This would not be surpassed until Irene in 1919. In 1896, theatre owners Marc Klaw and A. L. Erlanger formed the Theatrical Syndicate, which controlled almost every legitimate theatre in the U.S. for the next sixteen years. However, smaller vaudeville and variety houses proliferated, and Off-Broadway was well established by the end of the 19th century.

In the early years of the 20th century, translations of popular late-19th century continentaloperettas were joined by the "Princess Theatre" shows of the 1910s by writers such as P. G.Wodehouse, Guy Bolton and Harry B. Smith.Victor Herbert, whose work included some intimate musical plays with modern settings as well as his string of famous operettas (The Fortune Teller (1898), Babes in Toyland (1903), Mlle. Modiste (1905), The Red Mill (1906), and Naughty Marietta (1910)).

Florenz Ziegfeld produced annual spectacular song-and-dance revues on Broadway featuring extravagant sets and elaborate costumes, but there was little to tie the various numbers together. Typical of the 1920s were lighthearted productions like Sally; Lady Be Good; Sunny;No, No, Nanette; Oh, Kay!; and Funny Face. 

Broadway today

Schedule

Although there are now more exceptions than there once were, generally shows with open-ended runs operate on the same schedule, with evening performances Tuesday through Saturday with an 8 p.m. "curtain" and afternoon "matinée" performances on Wednesday, Saturday and Sunday; typically at 2 p.m. on Wednesdays and Saturdays and 3 p.m. on Sundays, making a standard eight performance week. On this schedule, shows do not play on Monday, and the shows and theatres are said to be "dark" on that day. Actors and crew in these shows tend to regard Sunday evening through Tuesday evening as their "weekend". 

The Tony Award presentation ceremony is usually held on a Sunday evening in June to fit into this schedule.In recent years, many shows have moved their Tuesday show time an hour earlier to 7 p.m. The rationale for the move was that fewer tourists took in shows midweek, so the Tuesday crowd in particular depends on local audience members. The earlier curtain therefore allows suburban patrons time after a show to get home by a reasonable hour. Some shows, especially those produced by Disney, change their performance schedules fairly frequently, depending on the season, in order to maximize access to their targeted audience.

Personnel

Both musicals and stage plays on Broadway often rely on casting well-known performers in leading roles to draw larger audiences or bring in new audience members to the theatre. Actors from movies and television are frequently cast for the revivals of Broadway shows or are used to replace actors leaving a cast.

In the past, stage actors had a somewhat superior attitude towards other kinds of live performances, such as vaudeville and burlesque, which were felt to be tawdry, commercial and low-brow—they considered their own craft to be a higher and more artistic calling. 

Almost all of the people involved with a Broadway show at every level are represented by unions or other protective, professional or trade organization. The actors, dancers, singers, chorus members and stage managers are members of Actors' Equity Association (AEA), musicians are represented by the American Federation of Musicians (AFM), and stagehands, dressers, hairdressers, designers, box office personnel and ushers all belong to various locals of the International Alliance of Theatrical Stage Employees, also known as "the IA" or "IATSE" (pronounced "eye-ot-zee"). 

Producers and theatre owners

Most Broadway producers and theatre owners are members of the The Broadway League (formerly "The League of American Theatres and Producers"), a trade organization that promotes Broadway theatre as a whole, negotiates contracts with the various theatrical unions and agreements with the guilds, and co-administers the Tony Awards with the American Theatre Wing, a service organization.

The three non-profit theatre companies with Broadway theatres ("houses") belong to the League of Resident Theatres and have contracts with the theatrical unions which are negotiated separately from the other Broadway theatre and producers. 

The majority of Broadway theatres are owned or managed by three organizations: the Shubert Organization, a for-profit arm of the non-profit Shubert Foundation, which owns 17 theatres (it recently retained full ownership of the Music Box from the Irving Berlin Estate); The Nederlander Organization, which controls 9 theatres; and Jujamcyn, which owns five Broadway houses.

Runs

Most Broadway shows are commercial productions intended to make a profit for the producers and investors ("backers" or "angels"), and therefore have open-ended runs, meaning that the length of their presentation is not set beforehand, but depends on critical response, word of mouth, and the effectiveness of the show's advertising, all of which determine ticket sales. 

Some Broadway shows are produced by non-commercial organizations as part of a regular subscription season—Lincoln Center Theatre, Roundabout Theatre Company, and Manhattan Theatre Club are the three non-profit theatre companies that currently have permanent Broadway venues. 

Historically, musicals on Broadway tend to have longer runs than do "straight" (i.e. non-musical) plays. On January 9, 2006, The Phantom of the Opera at the Majestic Theatre became the longest running Broadway musical, with 7,486 performances, overtaking Cats.

Audience

Seeing a Broadway show is a common tourist activity in New York, and Broadway shows sell about a billion dollars worth of tickets annually, helping the tourist industry to generate billions more in restaurant and hotel revenues.

Total Broadway attendance in the 2007-2008 season was 12.27 million, which was approximately the same as the previous season (2006-2007). By way of comparison, London's West End theatre reported total attendance of 13.6 million for major commercial and grant-aided theatres in Central London for 2007.

Off-Broadway and Tours

The classification of theatres is governed by language in Actors' Equity Association contracts. To be eligible for a Tony, a production must be in a house with 500 seats or more and in the Theatre District, which criteria defines Broadway theatre.

After (or even during) successful runs in Broadway theatres, producers often remount their productions with a new cast and crew for the Broadway national tour, which travels to theaters in major cities across the country—the bigger and more successful shows may have several of these touring companies out at a time, some of them "sitting down" in other cities for their own long runs.

Tony Awards

Broadway shows and artists are honored every June when the Antoinette Perry Awards (Tony Awards) are given by the American Theatre Wing and The Broadway League. The "Tony" is Broadway's most prestigious award, the importance of which has increased since the annual broadcast on television began. In a strategy to improve the television ratings, celebrities are often chosen to host the show, like Hugh Jackman and Rosie O'Donnell, in addition to celebrity presenters, many with little or no connection to the theatre.

Forbes' World's Most Expensive Home

$80 million Southampton, New York

The interior space of 13,500 square feet across four stories contains nine bedrooms, 11 bathrooms, four powder rooms and a movie theater. That's enough to catch anyone's eye, but what's really unique about this property is the waterfront. The home is situated between a pond and the ocean, and there is 1,000 feet of shore front and 1,000 feet of pond front.

$85 million Bel Air, California

One of the last homes designed by famed California architect Wallace Neff, this estate rests on seven acres of land in the Holmby Hills area of Bel Air. Lawns, walking paths and gardens surround the 12-bedroom, 10-bathroom main house, and there's also a tennis court and pool. Inside, the home bends around a giant central atrium with curving hallways and overlooks.

$88 million Côte d'Azur 

On the French Riviera, this 11-bedroom, 14-bathroom mansion has 29,000 square feet of interior space that open to manicured lawns and a swimming pool. The spiraling outdoor staircases and plentiful balconies and terraces have views across the water and of the surrounding hillsides. Working fireplaces, a sauna, outdoor kitchen and pool house are other features at Villa Leopolda.

$88 million Pagosa Springs, Colorado

We included the BootJack Ranch on our list because, while the price includes 3,100 acres of land, it's a luxury property more than a working ranch. The main house is 13,800 square feet and has four bedrooms and four bathrooms. Outlying guest cabins and lodges can host up to 50 people and bring the total interior space up to 77,000 square feet. In addition, there's a 12,000-square-foot spa and aquatic center.

$95 million Stamford, Connecticut

With its stone construction, hedged gardens, grass tennis court, manicured gardens and distinctive chimneys, Hillandale has all the markings of an English country manor. The 20,000-square-foot residence has eight bedrooms and 10 bathrooms. It's so big that the property straddles the New York-Connecticut border. The grounds also include four guest and staff residences and two barns, all connected by five miles of private roads.

$100 million Moscow, Russia 

This sizable property consists of an 11,700-square-foot manor house, two 4,000-square-foot guest houses and a 91,000-square-foot recreation center that has a pool, Turkish and Russian baths, a gym, sauna and lounges. The estate--Eurasia--is 15 miles from the Moscow city center.

$100 million Lake Tahoe, Nevada

 

Conveniently on the tax-free Nevada side of Lake Tahoe, this 210-acre property--Tranquility--is owned by Joel Horowitz, the co-founder of Tommy Hilfiger, who built the property from scratch. The main house has 20,000 square feet of living space, is modeled after a northern European mountain home and has a 3,500-bottle wine cellar. An indoor swimming pool and atrium, as well as a 19-seat movie theater, ensure constant entertainment, even if snowed in.

$110 million Windlesham, Surrey 

Larger than either Buckingham or Hampton Court palace, this 103-room home has 58 acres of gardens and woodlands, making it the idyllic English country home for those flush with cash. Several ballrooms and grand entrance ways punctuate Updown Court, which has a panic room, an indoor squash court, bowling alley, 50-seat cinema, helipads, space for eight limousines and a heated marble driveway. Marble bathrooms are nice, but some would say indoor spas, Jacuzzis and pools with views of the grounds are better. 

$125 million Greenwich, Connecticut

On 40 acres of rolling hills, with lawns and meadows broken by tree lines that provide privacy, this Jacobean manor has 21,897 square feet, 14 bedrooms and 13 bathrooms. Vaulted ceilings, travertine marble floors, bay windows, limestone walls and wood paneling are notable interior features of Dunnellen Hall, as is a 52-foot-long indoor swimming pool.

$125 million Beverly Hills, California

The latest addition to the $100 million-plus club, Suzanne Saperstein's gem is aptly called the Fleur de Lys. Modeled after Louis XIV's palace at Versailles, the 45,000-square-foot home took five years to build following Saperstein's accumulation of five acres in Holmby Hills during the 1990s. Should strolling the grounds bore you, there is a 50-seat screening room and a library filled with first-edition books. Auto collectors will salivate over the nine-car garage.

Chronic Kidney Disease

Chronic kidney disease (CKD), also known as chronic renal disease, is a progressive loss of renal function over a period of months or years. The symptoms of worsening kidney function are unspecific, and might include feeling generally unwell and experiencing a reduced appetite. Often, chronic kidney disease is diagnosed as a result of screening of people known to be at risk of kidney problems, such as those with high blood pressure ordiabetes and those with a blood relative with chronic kidney disease. 

Chronic kidney disease may also be identified when it leads to one of its recognized complications, such as cardiovascular disease, anemia or pericarditis.
Chronic kidney disease is identified by a blood test for creatinine. Higher levels of creatinine indicate a falling glomerular filtration rate (rate at which the kidneys filter blood) and as a result a decreased capability of the kidneys to excrete waste products. Creatinine levels may be normal in the early stages of CKD, and the condition is discovered if urinalysis (testing of a urine sample) shows that the kidney is allowing the loss of protein or red blood cells into the urine. To fully investigate the underlying cause of kidney damage, various forms of medical imaging, blood tests and often renal biopsy(removing a small sample of kidney tissue) are employed to find out if 

there is a reversible cause for the kidney malfunction. 

Recent professional guidelines classify the severity of chronic kidney disease in five stages, with stage 1 being the mildest and usually causing few symptoms and stage 5 being a severe illness with poor life expectancy if untreated. Stage 5 CKD is also called established chronic kidney disease and is synonymous with the now outdated terms end-stage renal disease (ESRD), chronic kidney failure (CKF) or chronic renal failure (CRF).

There is no specific treatment unequivocally shown to slow the worsening of chronic kidney disease. If there is an underlying cause to CKD, such as vasculitis, this may be treated directly with treatments aimed to slow the damage. In more advanced stages, treatments may be required for anemia and bone disease. Severe CKD requires one of the forms of renal replacement therapy; this may be a form of dialysis, but ideally constitutes a kidney transplant.

Signs and Symptoms

Initially it is without specific symptoms and can only be detected as an increase in serum creatinine or protein in the urine. As the kidney function decreases:

- blood pressure is increased due to fluid overload and production of vasoactive hormones, increasing one's risk of developing hypertension and/or suffering from congestive heart failure

- Urea accumulates, leading to azotemia and ultimately uremia (symptoms ranging from lethargy to pericarditis and encephalopathy). Urea is excreted by sweating and crystallizes on skin ("uremic frost").

- Potassium accumulates in the blood (known as hyperkalemia with a range of symptoms including malaise and potentially fatal cardiac arrhythmias)

- Erythropoietin synthesis is decreased (potentially leading to anemia, which causes fatigue)- Fluid volume overload - symptoms may range from mild edema to life-threatening pulmonary edema

- Hyperphosphatemia - due to reduced phosphate excretion, associated with hypocalcemia (due to vitamin D3 deficiency).                  

         -Later this progresses to tertiary hyperparathyroidism, with hypercalcaemia, renal osteodystrophy and vascular calcification that further impairs cardiac function.

- Metabolic acidosis, due to accumulation of sulfates, phosphates, uric acid etc. This may cause altered enzyme activity by excess acid acting on enzymes and also increased excitability of cardiac and neuronal membranes by the promotion of hyperkalemia due to excess acid (acidemia)

People with chronic kidney disease suffer from accelerated atherosclerosis and are more likely to develop cardiovascular disease than the general population. Patients afflicted with chronic kidney disease and cardiovascular disease tend to have significantly worse prognoses than those suffering only from the latter.

Diagnosis

In many CKD patients, previous renal disease or other underlying diseases are already known. A small number presents with CKD of unknown cause. In these patients, a cause is occasionally identified retrospectively.

It is important to differentiate CKD from acute renal failure (ARF) because ARF can be reversible. Abdominal ultrasound is commonly performed, in which the size of the kidneys are measured. Kidneys with CKD are usually smaller (<9cm)>

Another diagnostic clue that helps differentiate CKD and ARF is a gradual rise in serum creatinine (over several months or years) as opposed to a sudden increase in the serum creatinine (several days to weeks). If these levels are unavailable (because the patient has been well and has had no blood tests) it is occasionally necessary to treat a patient briefly as having ARF until it has been established that the renal impairment is irreversible.

Additional tests may include nuclear medicine MAG3 scan to confirm blood flows and establish the differential function between the two kidneys. DMSA scans are also used in renal imaging; with both MAG3 and DMSA being used chelated with the radioactive element Technetium-99. 
In chronic renal failure treated with standard dialysis, numerous uremic toxins accumulate. 

These toxins show various cytotoxic activities in the serum, have different molecular weights and some of them are bound to other proteins, primarily to albumin. Such toxic protein bound substances are receiving the attention of scientists who are interested in improving the standard chronic dialysis procedures used today.

Stages

All individuals with a Glomerular filtration rate (GFR) <60>

The rationale for including individuals with GFR 60 mL/min/1.73 m2 is that GFR may be sustained at normal or increased levels despite substantial kidney damage and that patients with kidney damage are at increased risk of the two major outcomes of chronic kidney disease: loss of kidney function and development of cardiovascular disease.

The loss of protein in the urine is regarded as an independent marker for worsening of renal function and cardiovascular disease. Hence, British guidelines append the letter "P" to the stage of chronic kidney disease if there is significant protein loss.

Stage 1 CKD

Slightly diminished function; Kidney damage with normal or increased GFR (>90 mL/min/1.73 m2). Kidney damage is defined as pathologic abnormalities or markers of damage, including abnormalities in blood or urine test or imaging studies.

Stage 2 CKD
Mild reduction in GFR (60-89 mL/min/1.73 m2) with kidney damage. Kidney damage is defined as pathologic abnormalities or markers of damage, including abnormalities in blood or urine test or imaging studies.

Stage 3 CKD

Moderate reduction in GFR (30-59 mL/min/1.73 m2).[1] British guidelines distinguish between stage 3A (GFR 45-59) and stage 3B (GFR 30-44) for purposes of screening and referral

Stage 4 CKD

Severe reduction in GFR (15-29 mL/min/1.73 m2)[1] Preparation for renal replacement therapy

Stage 5 CKD

Established kidney failure (GFR <15>

Causes

The most common causes of CKD are diabetic nephropathy, hypertension, and glomerulonephritis. Together, these cause approximately 75% of all adult cases. Certain geographic areas have a high incidence of HIV nephropathy.

Historically, kidney disease has been classified according to the part of the renal anatomy that is involved, as:

- Vascular, includes large vessel disease such as bilateral renal artery stenosis and small vessel disease such as ischemic nephropathy, hemolytic-uremic syndrome and vasculitis

- Glomerular, comprising a diverse group and subclassified into

       - Primary Glomerular disease such as focal segmental glomerulosclerosis and IgA nephritis

       -Secondary Glomerular disease such as diabetic nephropathy and lupus nephritis

- Tubulointerstitial including polycystic kidney disease, drug and toxin-induced chronic tubulointerstitial nephritis and reflux nephropathy

- Obstructive such as with bilateral kidney stones and diseases of the prostate

Treatment

The goal of therapy is to slow down or halt the otherwise relentless progression of CKD to stage 5. Control of blood pressure and treatment of the original disease, whenever feasible, are the broad principles of management. Generally, angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEIs) or angiotensin II receptor antagonists (ARBs) are used, as they have been found to slow the progression of CKD to stage 5.

Replacement of erythropoietin and vitamin D3, two hormones processed by the kidney, is usually necessary, as is calcium. Phosphate binders are used to control the serum phosphatelevels, which are usually elevated in chronic kidney disease.When one reaches stage 5 CKD, renal replacement therapy is required, in the form of either dialysis or a transplant.In some cases, dietary modifications have been proven to slow and even reverse further progression. Generally this includes limiting a persons intake of animal protein.

Prognosis

The prognosis of patients with chronic kidney disease is guarded as epidemiological data has shown that all cause mortality (the overall death rate) increases as kidney function decreases.
 The leading cause of death in patients with chronic kidney disease is cardiovascular disease, regardless of whether there is progression to stage 5. 

While renal replacement therapies can maintain patients indefinitely and prolong life, the quality of life is severely affected. Renal transplantation increases the survival of patients with stage 5 CKD significantly when compared to other therapeutic options; however, it is associated with an increased short-term mortality (due to complications of the surgery). Transplantation aside, high intensity home hemodialysis appears to be associated with improved survival and a greater quality of life, when compared to the conventional three times a week

hemodialysis and peritoneal dialysis.

Organizations

In the USA, the National Kidney Foundation is a national organization representing patients and professionals who treat kidney diseases. The Renal Support Network (RSN) is a nonprofit, patient-focused, patient-run organization that provides non-medical services to those affected by CKD. The American Association of Kidney Patients (AAKP) is a non-profit, patient-centric group focused on improving the health and well-being of CKD and dialysis patients.

The Renal Physicians Association (RPA) is an association

representing nephrology professionals. In the United Kingdom, the National Kidney Federation represents patients, and the Renal Association represents renal physicians and works closely with the National Service Frameworkfor kidney disease.The International Society of Nephrology is an international body representing specialists in kidney diseases.

p/s: I have been kidney disease since 9 years old. But now my kidney health are cure and I really emphasize of it. So, this topic are realize me how dangerous it is and i'm going through with it. =)